How to make a proper website on NETWORKING

A web standards checklist

The term web standards can mean different things to different people. For some, it is 'table-free sites', for others it is 'using valid code'. However, web standards are much broader than that. A site built to web standards should adhere to standards (HTML, XHTML, XML, CSS, XSLT, DOM, MathML, SVG etc) and pursue best practices (valid code, accessible code, semantically correct code, user-friendly URLs etc).

In other words, a site built to web standards should ideally be lean, clean, CSS-based, accessible, usable and search engine friendly.

About the checklist

This is not an uber-checklist. There are probably many items that could be added. More importantly, it should not be seen as a list of items that must be addressed on every site that you develop. It is simply a guide that can be used:

* to show the breadth of web standards
* as a handy tool for developers during the production phase of websites
* as an aid for developers who are interested in moving towards web standards

The checklist

1.Quality of code
1. Does the site use a correct Doctype?
2. Does the site use a Character set?
3. Does the site use Valid (X)HTML?
4. Does the site use Valid CSS?
5. Does the site use any CSS hacks?
6. Does the site use unnecessary classes or ids?
7. Is the code well structured?
8. Does the site have any broken links?
9. How does the site perform in terms of speed/page size?
10. Does the site have JavaScript errors?

2. Degree of separation between content and presentation
1. Does the site use CSS for all presentation aspects (fonts, colour, padding, borders etc)?
2. Are all decorative images in the CSS, or do they appear in the (X)HTML?

3. Accessibility for users
1. Are "alt" attributes used for all descriptive images?
2. Does the site use relative units rather than absolute units for text size?
3. Do any aspects of the layout break if font size is increased?
4. Does the site use visible skip menus?
5. Does the site use accessible forms?
6. Does the site use accessible tables?
7. Is there sufficient colour brightness/contrasts?
8. Is colour alone used for critical information?
9. Is there delayed responsiveness for dropdown menus (for users with reduced motor skills)?
10. Are all links descriptive (for blind users)?

4. Accessibility for devices
1. Does the site work acceptably across modern and older browsers?
2. Is the content accessible with CSS switched off or not supported?
3. Is the content accessible with images switched off or not supported?
4. Does the site work in text browsers such as Lynx?
5. Does the site work well when printed?
6. Does the site work well in Hand Held devices?
7. Does the site include detailed metadata?
8. Does the site work well in a range of browser window sizes?

5. Basic Usability
1. Is there a clear visual hierarchy?
2. Are heading levels easy to distinguish?
3. Does the site have easy to understand navigation?
4. Does the site use consistent navigation?
5. Are links underlined?
6. Does the site use consistent and appropriate language?
7. Do you have a sitemap page and contact page? Are they easy to find?
8. For large sites, is there a search tool?
9. Is there a link to the home page on every page in the site?
10. Are visited links clearly defined with a unique colour?

6. Site management
1. Does the site have a meaningful and helpful 404 error page that works from any depth in the site?
2. Does the site use friendly URLs?
3. Do your URLs work without "www"?
4. Does the site have a favicon?

1. Quality of code

1.1 Does the site use a correct Doctype?
A doctype (short for 'document type declaration') informs the validator which version of (X)HTML you're using, and must appear at the very top of every web page. Doctypes are a key component of compliant web pages: your markup and CSS won't validate without them.
CODE
http://www.alistapart.com/articles/doctype/


More:
CODE
http://www.w3.org/QA/2002/04/valid-dtd-list.html

CODE
http://css.maxdesign.com.au/listamatic/about-boxmodel.htm

CODE
http://gutfeldt.ch/matthias/articles/doctypeswitch.html


1.2 Does the site use a Character set?
If a user agent (eg. a browser) is unable to detect the character encoding used in a Web document, the user may be presented with unreadable text. This information is particularly important for those maintaining and extending a multilingual site, but declaring the character encoding of the document is important for anyone producing XHTML/HTML or CSS.
CODE
http://www.w3.org/International/tutorials/tutorial-char-enc/


More:
CODE
http://www.w3.org/International/O-charset.html


1.3 Does the site use Valid (X)HTML?
Valid code will render faster than code with errors. Valid code will render better than invalid code. Browsers are becoming more standards compliant, and it is becoming increasingly necessary to write valid and standards compliant HTML.
CODE
http://www.maxdesign.com.au/presentation/sit2003/06.htm


More:
CODE
http://validator.w3.org/


1.4 Does the site use Valid CSS?
You need to make sure that there aren't any errors in either your HTML or your CSS, since mistakes in either place can result in botched document appearance.
CODE
http://www.meyerweb.com/eric/articles/webrev/199904.html


More:
CODE
http://jigsaw.w3.org/css-validator/


1.5 Does the site use any CSS hacks?
Basically, hacks come down to personal choice, the amount of knowledge you have of workarounds, the specific design you are trying to achieve.
CODE
http://www.mail-archive.com/wsg@webstandardsgroup.org/msg05823.html


More:
CODE
http://css-discuss.incutio.com/?page=CssHack

CODE
http://css-discuss.incutio.com/?page=ToHackOrNotToHack

CODE
http://centricle.com/ref/css/filters/


1.6 Does the site use unnecessary classes or ids?
I've noticed that developers learning new skills often end up with good CSS but poor XHTML. Specifically, the HTML code tends to be full of unnecessary divs and ids. This results in fairly meaningless HTML and bloated style sheets.
CODE
http://www.clagnut.com/blog/228/


1.7 Is the code well structured?
Semantically correct markup uses html elements for their given purpose. Well structured HTML has semantic meaning for a wide range of user agents (browsers without style sheets, text browsers, PDAs, search engines etc.)
CODE
http://www.maxdesign.com.au/presentation/benefits/index04.htm


More:
CODE
http://www.w3.org/2003/12/semantic-extractor.html


1.8 Does the site have any broken links?
Broken links can frustrate users and potentially drive customers away. Broken links can also keep search engines from properly indexing your site.

More:
CODE
http://validator.w3.org/checklink


1.9 How does the site perform in terms of speed/page size?
Don't make me wait... That's the message users give us in survey after survey. Even broadband users can suffer the slow-loading blues.
CODE
http://www.websiteoptimization.com/speed/


1.10 Does the site have JavaScript errors?
Internet Explore for Windows allows you to turn on a debugger that will pop up a new window and let you know there are javascript errors on your site. This is available under 'Internet Options' on the Advanced tab. Uncheck 'Disable script debugging'.

2. Degree of separation between content and presentation

2.1 Does the site use CSS for all presentation aspects (fonts, colour, padding, borders etc)?
Use style sheets to control layout and presentation.
CODE
http://www.w3.org/TR/WCAG10/wai-pageauth.html#tech-style-sheets


2.2 Are all decorative images in the CSS, or do they appear in the (X)HTML?
The aim for web developers is to remove all presentation from the html code, leaving it clean and semantically correct.
CODE
http://www.maxdesign.com.au/presentation/benefits/index07.htm


3. Accessibility for users

3.1 Are "alt" attributes used for all descriptive images?
Provide a text equivalent for every non-text element
CODE
http://www.w3.org/TR/WCAG10/wai-pageauth.html#tech-text-equivalent


3.2 Does the site use relative units rather than absolute units for text size?
Use relative rather than absolute units in markup language attribute values and style sheet property values'.
CODE
http://www.w3.org/TR/WCAG10/wai-pageauth.html#tech-relative-units


More:
CODE
http://www.w3.org/TR/WCAG10/wai-pageauth.html#tech-relative-units

CODE
http://www.clagnut.com/blog/348/


3.3 Do any aspects of the layout break if font size is increased?
Try this simple test. Look at your website in a browser that supports easy incrementation of font size. Now increase your browser's font size. And again. And again... Look at your site. Does the page layout still hold together? It is dangerous for developers to assume that everyone browses using default font sizes.
3.4 Does the site use visible skip menus?

A method shall be provided that permits users to skip repetitive navigation links.
CODE
http://www.section508.gov/index.cfm?FuseAction=Content&ID=12


Group related links, identify the group (for user agents), and, until user agents do so, provide a way to bypass the group.
CODE
http://www.w3.org/TR/WCAG10-TECHS/#tech-group-links


...blind visitors are not the only ones inconvenienced by too many links in a navigation area. Recall that a mobility-impaired person with poor adaptive technology might be stuck tabbing through that morass.
CODE
http://joeclark.org/book/sashay/serialization/Chapter08.html#h4-2020


More:
CODE
http://www.niehs.nih.gov/websmith/508/o.htm


3.5 Does the site use accessible forms?
Forms aren't the easiest of things to use for people with disabilities. Navigating around a page with written content is one thing, hopping between form fields and inputting information is another.
CODE
http://www.htmldog.com/guides/htmladvanced/forms/


More:
CODE
http://www.webstandards.org/learn/tutorials/accessible-forms/01-accessible-forms.html

CODE
http://www.accessify.com/tools-and-wizards/accessible-form-builder.asp

CODE
http://accessify.com/tutorials/better-accessible-forms.asp


3.6 Does the site use accessible tables?
For data tables, identify row and column headers... For data tables that have two or more logical levels of row or column headers, use markup to associate data cells and header cells.
CODE
http://www.w3.org/TR/WCAG10/wai-pageauth.html#tech-table-headers


More:
CODE
http://www.bcc.ctc.edu/webpublishing/ada/resources/tables.asp

CODE
http://www.accessify.com/tools-and-wizards/accessible-table-builder_step1.asp

CODE
http://www.webaim.org/techniques/tables/


3.7 Is there sufficient colour brightness/contrasts?
Ensure that foreground and background colour combinations provide sufficient contrast when viewed by someone having colour deficits.
CODE
http://www.w3.org/TR/WCAG10/wai-pageauth.html#tech-colour-contrast


More:
CODE
http://www.juicystudio.com/services/colourcontrast.asp


3.8 Is colour alone used for critical information?
Ensure that all information conveyed with colour is also available without colour, for example from context or markup.
CODE
http://www.w3.org/TR/WCAG10/wai-pageauth.html#tech-colour-convey


There are basically three types of colour deficiency; Deuteranope (a form of red/green colour deficit), Protanope (another form of red/green colour deficit) and Tritanope (a blue/yellow deficit- very rare).

More:
CODE
http://colourfilter.wickline.org/

CODE
http://www.toledo-bend.com/colourblind/Ishihara.html

CODE
http://www.vischeck.com/vischeck/vischeckURL.php


3.9 Is there delayed responsiveness for dropdown menus?
Users with reduced motor skills may find dropdown menus hard to use if responsiveness is set too fast.

3.10 Are all links descriptive?
Link text should be meaningful enough to make sense when read out of context - either on its own or as part of a sequence of links. Link text should also be terse.
CODE
http://www.w3.org/TR/WCAG10/wai-pageauth.html#tech-meaningful-links


4. Accessibility for devices.

4.1 Does the site work acceptably across modern and older browsers?

Before starting to build a CSS-based layout, you should decide which browsers to support and to what level you intend to support them.
CODE
http://www.maxdesign.com.au/presentation/process/index_step01.cfm



4.2 Is the content accessible with CSS switched off or not supported?
Some people may visit your site with either a browser that does not support CSS or a browser with CSS switched off. In content is structured well, this will not be an issue.

4.3 Is the content accessible with images switched off or not supported?
Some people browse websites with images switched off - especially people on very slow connections. Content should still be accessible for these people.

4.4 Does the site work in text browsers such as Lynx?
This is like a combination of images and CSS switched off. A text-based browser will rely on well structured content to provide meaning.

More:
CODE
http://www.delorie.com/web/lynxview


4.5 Does the site work well when printed?
You can take any (X)HTML document and simply style it for print, without having to touch the markup.
CODE
http://www.alistapart.com/articles/goingtoprint/


More:
CODE
http://www.d.umn.edu/itss/support/Training/Online/webdesign/css.html#print


4.6 Does the site work well in Hand Held devices?
This is a hard one to deal with until hand held devices consistently support their correct media type. However, some layouts work better in current hand-held devices. The importance of supporting hand held devices will depend on target audiences.

4.7 Does the site include detailed metadata?
Metadata is machine understandable information for the web
CODE
http://www.w3.org/Metadata/


Metadata is structured information that is created specifically to describe another resource. In other words, metadata is 'data about data'.


4.8 Does the site work well in a range of browser window sizes?
It is a common assumption amongst developers that average screen sizes are increasing. Some developers assume that the average screen size is now 1024px wide. But what about users with smaller screens and users with hand held devices? Are they part of your target audience and are they being disadvantaged?

5. Basic Usability
5.1 Is there a clear visual hierarchy?
Organise and prioritise the contents of a page by using size, prominence and content relationships.
CODE
http://www.great-web-design-tips.com/web-site-design/165.html


5.2 Are heading levels easy to distinguish?
Use header elements to convey document structure and use them according to specification.
CODE
http://www.w3.org/TR/WCAG10/wai-pageauth.html#tech-logical-headings


5.3 Is the site's navigation easy to understand?
Your navigation system should give your visitor a clue as to what page of the site they are currently on and where they can go next.
CODE
http://www.1stsitefree.com/design_nav.htm


5.4 Is the site's navigation consistent?
If each page on your site has a consistent style of presentation, visitors will find it easier to navigate between pages and find information
CODE
http://www.juicystudio.com/tutorial/accessibility/navigation.asp


5.5 Does the site use consistent and appropriate language?
The use of clear and simple language promotes effective communication. Trying to come across as articulate can be as difficult to read as poorly written grammar, especially if the language used isn't the visitor's primary language.
CODE
http://www.juicystudio.com/tutorial/accessibility/clear.asp


5.6 Does the site have a sitemap page and contact page? Are they easy to find?
Most site maps fail to convey multiple levels of the site's information architecture. In usability tests, users often overlook site maps or can't find them. Complexity is also a problem: a map should be a map, not a navigational challenge of its own.
CODE
http://www.useit.com/alertbox/20020106.html


5.7 For large sites, is there a search tool?
While search tools are not needed on smaller sites, and some people will not ever use them, site-specific search tools allow users a choice of navigation options.

5.8 Is there a link to the home page on every page in the site?
Some users like to go back to a site's home page after navigating to content within a site. The home page becomes a base camp for these users, allowing them to regroup before exploring new content.

5.9 Are links underlined?
To maximise the perceived affordance of clickability, colour and underline the link text. Users shouldn't have to guess or scrub the page to find out where they can click.
CODE
http://www.useit.com/alertbox/20040510.html


5.10 Are visited links clearly defined?
Most important, knowing which pages they've already visited frees users from unintentionally revisiting the same pages over and over again.
CODE
http://www.useit.com/alertbox/20040503.html


6. Site management

6.1 Does the site have a meaningful and helpful 404 error page that works from any depth in the site?
You've requested a page - either by typing a URL directly into the address bar or clicking on an out-of-date link and you've found yourself in the middle of cyberspace nowhere. A user-friendly website will give you a helping hand while many others will simply do nothing, relying on the browser's built-in ability to explain what the problem is.
CODE
http://www.alistapart.com/articles/perfect404/


6.2 Does the site use friendly URLs?
Most search engines (with a few exceptions - namely Google) will not index any pages that have a question mark or other character (like an ampersand or equals sign) in the URL... what good is a site if no one can find it?
CODE
http://www.sitepoint.com/article/search-engine-friendly-urls


One of the worst elements of the web from a user interface standpoint is the URL. However, if they're short, logical, and self-correcting, URLs can be acceptably usable
CODE
http://www.merges.net/theory/20010305.html


More:
CODE
http://www.sitepoint.com/article/search-engine-friendly-urls

CODE
http://www.websitegoodies.com/article/32

CODE
http://www.merges.net/theory/20010305.html


6.3 Does the site's URL work without "www"?
While this is not critical, and in some cases is not even possible, it is always good to give people the choice of both options. If a user types your domain name without the www and gets no site, this could disadvantage both the user and you.
6.4 Does the site have a favicon?

A Favicon is a multi-resolution image included on nearly all professionally developed sites. The Favicon allows the webmaster to further promote their site, and to create a more customized appearance within a visitor's browser.
CODE
http://www.favicon.com/


Favicons are definitely not critical. However, if they are not present, they can cause 404 errors in your logs (site statistics). Browsers like IE will request them from the server when a site is bookmarked. If a favicon isn't available, a 404 error may be generated. Therefore, having a favicon could cut down on favicon specific 404 errors. The same is true of a 'robots.txt' file.

READ MORE - How to make a proper website on NETWORKING

Nortel : Case Study

What is Open Mobile :

Open Mobile is an operator that serves the Puerto Rico wireless market and launched in June of 2007. Open Mobile is characterized by its innovative products and solutions portfolio that it provides its subscribers.

What was Customer Need from Open Mobile :

In 2007, Open Mobile replaced the aging Movistar wireless network with an infrastructure that would help to reduce overhead and provide reliable cost effective service, while ensuring customer longevity by enabling top quality voice and data wireless services. With this change, Open Mobile was looking to increase the number of subscribers, additional customer features and applications by providing a best in class CDMA network.

What Nortel Solution provide them :

By partnering with Nortel, Open Mobile was able to achieve its initial business objectives and launched its Unlimited Plan business.

• Nortel Global Services handled all aspects of the network implementation replacing the existing outdated CDMA network with the new Nortel CDMA network
• Nortel successfully performed the cutover of the existing 245 BTS Network in-service while meeting the project schedule with minimal service interruption and providing immediate network performance improvement right from the initial launch in June of 2007.
• Nortel provides ongoing support services for the core and access network.
• Nortel also managed day-to-day operations of the network from the Pocket NOC in San Juan with 24x7 support from Nortel's Americas Network Management Center and a dedicated Service Delivery Manager to oversee all work and act as a single point of contact to Open Mobile.

Results & Benefits after Nortel Solutions provided to Open Mobile :

1. Better than expected network growth with continued network performance improvements.
2. Eliminated the need to build or expand on network operation center facilities and/or the need to train staff on new technologies.
3. Reduced operating expenses and allows internal staff to focus on strategic initiatives, plus accelerate transition to new technologies when ready.
4. The Nortel solution helps provide Open Mobile with assurance that its business is always supported by next-generation communications technologies.

READ MORE - Nortel : Case Study

koollage-blogs-news

         

READ MORE - koollage-blogs-news

Core Networking In Microsoft Windows Server 2003

In Microsoft Windows Server 2003, core networking tasks are accomplished by using TCP/IP. TCP/IP consists of a suite of protocols, of which TCP and IP are two. This suite of protocols was originally designed to solve a communications problem among the branches of the United States military. In the 1960s, each of the military branches obtained bids from different vendors to provide computer systems for their branch. The Army chose Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC), the Air Force chose International Business Machines (IBM), and the Navy chose Unisys. Soon after, the military branches discovered that they needed their computer systems to communicate with each other to facilitate coordination between the military branches. The Department of Defense (DoD) launched a research project in 1969 to connect the systems of various vendors together to form a network of networks. The DoD developed TCP/IP with IP version 4 (IPv4) to connect this network of networks — the collection of networks now known as the Internet. TCP/IP is still used to connect business networks across the world.
The word internetwork refers to multiple TCP/IP networks connected with routers. The Internet is a worldwide public IP internetwork. An intranet is a private IP internetwork.

The core networking components protocol, TCP/IP, which is installed by default on computers that run Windows Server 2003 is an industry-standard suite of protocols designed for large internetworks spanning wide area network (WAN) links. TCP/IP in Windows Server 2003 was designed to make it easy to integrate Microsoft systems into large-scale corporate, government and public networks, and to provide the ability to operate over those networks in a more secure manner. There are two versions of TCP/IP available for use with Windows Server 2003:
TCP/IP version 4 (with IPv4) and
TCP/IP version 6 (with IPv6).

Computers that run Windows operating systems use TCP/IP to communicate with other computers in corporate intranets, and across the Internet. As such, TCP/IP is an essential component of any Windows network configuration. Windows Server 2003 is the first release of the Windows operating system that includes IPv6. Ideally, IPv6 is used in a pure environment, meaning an environment where IPv6 is the exclusive Internet protocol used between computers. Currently, however, pure IPv6 environments are attainable only when you use computers running Windows operating systems that support IPv6 and routers that support IPv6 routing. As IPv6 replace IPv4, pure IPv6 environments will eventually replace IPv4. Until that occurs, the transition technologies described in this technical reference can be used to facilitate coexistence and provide a migration path from IPv4 to IPv6.

READ MORE - Core Networking In Microsoft Windows Server 2003

INTRODUCTION TO TELECOMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM

Introduction
One way of understanding how telecommunications systems work and how they are changing is to consider a number of basic paired concepts. This short paper looks at nine such pairs and it should be emphasised that many of them are linked.
One-way v Interactive
Most broadcasting systems are one-way: the radio or television signal is transmitted to the listener or viewer and there is no means for the recipient to send back any information. By contrast, telecommunications systems – whether telegraph, telex, facsimile or telephony – are intrinsically two-way: both parties to the communication process have the same facility to send and receive the same kind of information. Increasingly, broadcasting systems are becoming more interactive as digital television allows viewers to use their sets to take part in electronic polling or order goods or send e-mail or access the Internet. Similarly more and more Web sites are becoming interactive allowing the user to comment on a film or book a play or order a book.
Analogue v Digital
Analogue signals have a continuous wave-like form. The further the signal travels, the more likely it is to become degraded and therefore, over anything other than short distances, these signals are boosted in strength at various points in the network and any subsequent distortions are amplified at the same time. By contrast, digital signals are discrete in form and essentially represent power on or off or – to use the binary language of computers – nought (0) or one (1). Digital signals can be recreated at their destination in exactly the form they left their starting point despite any distortion along the way, since the only two possibilities for the original signal are 0 and 1. All communications networks – whether telecommunications or broadcasting, whether fixed or mobile – are increasingly becoming digital because the quality of the signal is so much better and the capacity of the network is so much greater.
Circuit switching v Packet switching
Traditionally telecommunications networks have connected the sender and the recipient through a series of circuits, controlled by switches or exchanges, which provide a dedicated, physical connection for the duration of the call. This provides a high-quality connection, but it requires considerable capacity that is often unused for a lot of the time. By contrast, data networks – which link computers rather than people – use a method of transmission in which the information is broken up into a multitude of tiny packets. These packets are switched to their ultimate destination through a multitude of routes and then reconfigured into the original order or message at the end of the transmission. Packet switching enables much more intensive use to be made of network capacity and therefore it is much cheaper. The Internet, which was designed to carry data and therefore uses packet switching, is increasingly being used to carry voice telephony at lower cost and (currently) poorer quality than traditional circuit switched networks. Soon, however, we will have IP (Internet Protocol) networks which will be able to carry voice as well as data with quality comparable to current telephone networks.
Fixed v Mobile
Until comparatively recently, all communications networks used fixed links whether these were wire, microwave or satellite. In the last 20 years, we have seen a growing proportion of calls carried on mobile networks. The first generation of mass market mobile networks were cellular; the second generation are called Personal Communications Networks (PCN) or Personal Communications Services (PCS); and the third generation – not yet in operation – will be called Universal Mobile Communications Systems (UMTS). What makes these mobile networks possible – and increasingly cheap – is microelectronics that has enabled the development of small and light handsets and sophisticated computers that can switch calls made while moving at speed. Over time, mobile telephony may well become a larger market than fixed telephony.
Geo-stationary satellites v LEO satellites
Until very recently, virtually all communications satellites have used a particular orbit called the geo-stationary or geo-synchronous orbit which is 22,240 miles (35,780 kms) above the earth’s surface. At this distance, the satellite travels around the globe once every 24 hours, so that it appears to be stationary above a particular spot on the earth’s surface (usually around the equator). The advantage of such an orbit is that only three-six satellites can cover the entire surface of the globe. The disadvantage of this orbit is that the signal has to travel so far up to the satellite and back to the earth that there is a time delay and – more seriously – large and expensive transmitters and receivers are necessary. By contrast, low earth orbit (LEO) satellites use much lower orbits – typically around 500-1,200 miles (or 800-1,930 kms) above the earth. The disadvantage of such orbits is than many more satellites are needed to cover the earth’s surface – the ill-fated Iridium system would have used 66 satellites – but the advantage is that the signal has much less distance to travel and therefore the handsets can be so much smaller, lighter and cheaper. In the next decade, LEO systems will enable access to advanced communications facilities almost anywhere in the world however remote.
Low bandwidth v High bandwidth
Bandwidth is a measure of the information-carrying capacity of a particular form of transmission and it is usually denoted in bits per second (bit/s) where a bit is a binary digit (that is, a nought or a one in computer terms). Services with low information content – such as basic voice telephony – only require low bandwidth and are called narrowband; services with more information content – such as video – require mid bandwidth and are called midband; and services with a great deal of information content – such as high definition television – require high bandwidth and are called broadband. Even a narrowband service like lower-rate data might need midband transmission if the intention is to download large volumes of data at high speed. Therefore the trend is for all communications networks to provide more and more bandwidth and the challenge to network operators is how to provide this in a cost-effective way.
Electrical signal v Optical signal
Twisted copper pairs and coaxial cables transmit signals in electrical form as a flow of electrons. By contrast, optical fibre transmits signals in the form of pulses of light generated by miniature lasers and received by tiny diodes. Both forms of transmission travel at the fastest speed known to physics, the speed of light which is approximately 186,000 miles per second (or 300,000 km per second). Currently all switching is done electrically, so that light signals are converted into electrical signals for the switching process and then afterwards reconverted back into light signals. However, in future we can expect the development of optical switches. Indeed developments may be so profound that some have suggested that, if the last century was that of the electron (electricity), then this century will be that of the photon (photonics).
Basic signal v Processed signal
Frequently communications networks process basic signals in order to increase the capacity of the network. One effective means of increasing the range or number of services that can be carried on any particular cable or wireless system is to compress the basic signal, so that much of the redundant information is removed before transmission. For instance, the information in the 30 frames that make up a second of video can be compressed from about 27 million to 1 million bits without serious loss of quality. Another way to enhance the capacity of a transmission system is to carry different types of signal or service at the same time. This can be done by multiplexing techniques that for instance mix voice and data signals on the same transmission path. A whole variety of compression and multiplexing technologies are now massively expanding the capacity of communications networks.
Stand-alone networks v Converged offerings
Traditionally communications networks have been created to serve specific purposes, such as the broadcasting network for television, the telephone network for voice, and the Internet for data. Increasingly both physical networks and customer offerings are converging because digitalisation of networks makes this possible and competitive marketplaces make it desirable. At least three types of convergence are occurring: between voice and data through services like ISDN and networks like the Internet; between telecommunications and broadcasting through telephone companies offering video on demand and cable companies providing telephony service; and between fixed and mobile telephony as customers are offered packages combining both services and phones are developed that can be used in the home or office or on the move.

READ MORE - INTRODUCTION TO TELECOMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM

HBR Technologies (HBR)

Communication is critical and keeping information and systems accessible can be overwhelming and difficult to manage. Faced with ever increasing risks and increased operational costs, organizations often deploy patch solutions with limited scalability that lead to complex, disparate systems that do not interface efficiently.

By leveraging expertise, solutions, and experience, HBR Technologies (HBR) employ advanced technologies to simplify infrastructure and make information more available and manageable. HBR can design and implement solutions today that will scale to meet future business goals. HBR incorporates best practices and an exceptional technical support team create solutions that make a positive impact on your operations.

HBR Technologies specializes in security, networking, and mobility. Thier experienced Network Engineers create, optimize, or support Wide Area Network, Local Area Network, Virtual Private Network, Wireless Network, Remote Access, and Internet Access. They work hand in hand with cabling specialists, telecom carriers, and manufacturers to provide the most complete network services possible.

READ MORE - HBR Technologies (HBR)